Here I present: Denise Schmandt-Besserat, “How Writing Came About”, 1992.
INTRODUCTION.
ABOVE are “tokens” from MESOPOTAMIA’ discussed in the book. Numbers with English and Sumerian transliterations are shown BELOW.
SUMERIAN CUNEIFORM NUMERALS.
1. 1 one 𒁹 diš
1.2 ten 𒌋 u
2.1 two 𒈫 min
2.2 six-hundred𒐞ĝešdu
2.3 half 𒈦 maš
3. 1 three 𒐈 eš₅
3.2 one-third𒑚 šušana
3.2 thirty 𒌍 ušu₃
4.1 four 𒍝 sea
5.1 five 𒐊 ia₂
5.2 thirty-six thousand 𒐬 šaru
5.4 number 216,000 𒄱 ub
5.5 fifty 𒐐 ninnu
6.1 six 𒐋 aš₃
7.1 seven 𒐌 imin
8.1 eight 𒐍 ussu
9.1 nine 𒑆
The “table of contents” of the book is shown BELOW.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Preface
Introduction: Tokens, a New Theory.
The Myths.
The Pictographic Theory: Tokens.
PART ONE (I): THE EVIDENCE.
One (1). What Are Tokens?
Types and Subtypes.
Evolution from Plain to Complex.
Materials.
Manufacture.
The Token Collection under Study.
Two (2). Where Tokens Were Handled and Who Used Them
Types of Settlements.
Distribution within Settlements Structures.
Token Clusters.
Containers Holding Tokens.
Associated Assemblages.
Tokens as Funerary Offerings.
Three (3). Strings of Tokens and Envelopes.
Strings of Tokens.
Envelopes.
Four (4). Impressed Tablets
Number.
Context.
Chronology.
Description.
The Signs.
Beyond the Impressed Tablets: Pictography.
The Meaning of Signs and Their Corresponding Tokens.
The Place of Impressed Tablets in the Evolution of Writing.
PART TWO (II): THE INTERPRETATION.
Five (5). Evolution of Symbols in Prehistory.
Symbols and Signs.
Lower and Middle Paleolithic Symbols.
Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic Symbols.
Neolithic Symbols.
A Turning Point in Communication and Data Storage.
Six (6). Tokens: The Socioeconomic Implications
Reckoning Technology and Economy Reckoning.
Technology and Social Organization.
Seven (7). Counting and the Emergence of Writing
The Various Modes of Counting.
The Sumerian Philological Evidence.
The Near Eastern Archaeological Data
Eight (8). Conclusions:
Tokens, Their Role in Prehistory and Their Contribution to Archaeology Economy.
Political Structure.
Mathematics.
Communication.
PART THREE (III): THE ARTIFACTS.
Cones.
Spheres.
Disks.
Cylinders.
Tetrahedrons.
Ovoids.
Quadrangles.
Triangles.
Biconoids.
Paraboloids.
Bent Coils.
Ovals/Rhomboids.
Vessels.
Tools.
Animals.
Miscellaneous.
COMMENTS.
Uruk MESOPOTAMIA’ was the largest city of the ancient world (shown ABOVE & BELOW). Uruk 𒀔 unug is the place where in 3,500 BC MESOPOTAMIA’ that writing began; and, this is beyond dispute.
The hypothesis put forth by Denise Schmandt-Besserat that clay tokens preceded cuneiform writing in human language communication (before 3,500 BC). The hypothesis is that the population growth is attributed to the use of clay tokens.
